The Theory Of Intersectionality Theory Essay Example For Students

The Theory Of Intersectionality Theory Essay Intersectionality also known as intersectional theory originally was a theory which was encoded in feminism. Intersectionality was a term in which feminists developed to explain how they were being socially oppressed because they were woman, in particular this theory addressed issues of the women’s suffrage movement and women wanting to retain the same rights as their male counterparts. As time progressed it became more common to see see it branched out into multidimensional levels of institutions such as- race, class, sexism, culture, religion, and even biological transgender. Intersectionality by definition aims to analyze multiple identities exposing different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the combination of identities (). According to author Patricia Collins, the theory of intersectionality argues most sociological theory makes the mistake of analyzing only one variable at time. She notes within her article variables are meant to work in groups not to be singled out one by one (Collins,1989). She also mentions the basic principle of this theory is to examine the ways in which race, gender, class and sexuality work together to achieve inequalities also known as, interlocking systems of oppression (Collins,1989) Through this essay the reader will understand how intersectionality has been integrated to help us understand the multiple ways in which privilege and oppression manifest in society on both systematic and individual levels. We will write a custom essay on The Theory Of Intersectionality Theory specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Intersectionality describes there is no singular experience of an identity. This theory focuses on using multiple factors to conceptualize systems of oppression. Patricia Collins, in her article, â€Å"Towards A New Vision† mentions to the reader it is important that we realize race, class, and gender are interlocking categories of analysis that together cultivate profound differences in our personal biographies (Collins,1989). Meaning, it is important to take into account an individual’s identity is more than just being female/male or black/white. Intersectionality allows for multiple factors to be analyzed at a time rather than just analyze dichotomous factors. For example, within intersectionality individuals are allowed to analyze the life of a Hispanic women, living in a low class neighborhood, who has a means of low education. Collins states, â€Å"we must re-conceptualize race, class, and gender in order to create new categories of connection and questions how c an we transcend these barriers created by our experience with race, class, and gender oppression.† However, intersectionality brings forth many problems in terms of social hierarchy. Understanding intersectionality is vital. Intersectionality allows for individuals to feel oppressed either by institutions, societal, or other individuals. Institutions create systematic oppression through schools, government agencies, work, businesses, and hospitals (Collins, 1989). Oppression allows for certain groups to hold dominant power over other groups through institutional levels. However, it is important to mention as Weber states, â€Å"they are not fixed systems or traits of individuals because they are contested and negotiated every day in social relationships, they change over time and in different places.† For example, during the early 1950’s individuals of color were not allowed to do the same type of work as those who were white. This changed as to how individuals of color lived and shaped their experiences due to their prescribed color of skin. However, these systems of oppression were not created just among women but men as well. Men of color were n ot seen as being equal to their white counterparts. Likewise, they were seen as being slaves- individuals who didn’t have the right to have freedom, education, and were meant to consume hard labor. As Collins, states, â€Å"Racism stripped blacks of legal rights, education, and control over their own personal lives.† This form of oppression was not only created by institutions, but, through society as well. Society was socially accepting to this idea and seen it as a norm. It became more common as time progressed on to see individuals, institutions, and organizations segregated according to race and gender. Society segregated bus stops, schools, drinking fountains, stores, and even parks. Not all individuals supported this idea however many did; those who did identify with their salient identities. Either intentionally or unintentionally they give produce prejudice attitudes or actions towards one social group. One example of this would be believing, all whites are int ellectually superior. Whites quite often were seen as being privileged. Members of the white community were viewed as having a special advantage over individuals of color, for no apparent reason at all. This idea was supported through all institutions across the board. For example, white men held higher paying jobs and classier jobs than individuals of color. They held jobs to benefit themselves and other people like them. They were allowed to achieve higher education and work as practicing doctors, lawyers, and judges. Hooks, within her chapter Being a Boy, boys received higher education than girls. Boys were allowed to go to school for free while, parents had to pay to send their girls to school. It is important to look at advantages in terms of the individual rather than systematically. Everyone has the right to be treated equal however, they are not. For example, Hooks explains in her chapter Patriarchy, a scenario in which her father beats her because, she wants to participate in the activities in which the boys are. This would be an example of priv ileged because it shows, women do not have the same standing as their male counterparts. Creating the illusion men are genetically superior over women. Collins, explains through her essay a scenario between white and black students and their relationship in which they had with each other. Through this section she explains their relationship and how certain institutions strip individuals of their power. The context of privilege describes what everyone should feel if our world was perfect. .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 , .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .postImageUrl , .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 , .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:hover , .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:visited , .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:active { border:0!important; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:active , .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284 .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u65d4c8703074bf5d44969fa29067a284:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Debate On Birth Control EssayUnderstanding oppression and privilege is critical to understanding how the world goes round. Oppression and privileged throughout the years has created many potential problems between race, class, and gender. It’s responsible for many historical movements. Oppression and privilege are parts of intersectionality in which work together quite often. Ideally, to avoid them individuals within society need to learn to set their differences aside and see everybody as being equivalent to one another. Rather than allowing for norms and history within society to create the stigma and views in which we hold towards other race, class, and gende rs throughout society. These aspects do not allow for individuals to prosper and get ahead in life. Oppression and privilege are aspects in which is potentially harmful to the human being. Capitalism Intersectionality with Race and Gender Our nation has been dependent upon capitalism for many centuries now. Capitalism has allowed for the economic system to prosper as well as, embellish. It is a system in which individuals of power use land, small business, corporations, and factories in order to produce a profit. Capitalism sets the characteristics for a competitive labor force. As a result, financial decisions are made by owners. Under a capitalistic system, opportunities are very slim. With benefits come disparities as well. Capitalism creates disparities and inequalities among individuals. It allows for gender, oppression, discrimination, class, and domination to intersect with one another. Through this essay, the reader will gain an understanding how capitalism has allowed for certain individuals to feel and be oppressed depending upon race and gender and the role capitalism has played in privileged and power according to race and gender. Capitalism since the early seventeenth century has developed across the nation. However, during its time of development it has created a series of negative disparities on a number of select groups of people in regards to their race and gender. These negative consequences are a form of oppression. Oppression is generated through society and what society sets as norms. Oppressions allows for institutionalized power to be created and remain as a dominant sense of power over other individuals. Individuals whom are oppressed fear the capitalistic system. The only way in which they can overcome this oppression and fear is to over throw the capitalistic system (Bohemer, 1998). However, they can improve their working conditions by trying to raise their wages. As more products are needed to be produced individuals of power divide employees according to their race and gender. Depending on the requirements for the job and how much of the product needs to be finished contributes to who does what . This helps increase the level of oppression in which workers feel. These individuals oppressed are discriminated against due to their- economic standing, racial background, and gender. Oppression allows for members in the capitalistic economy to gain a profit. Members of the group being discriminated against receive a lower wage than the group of individuals whom are not being discriminated against. For example, it was common in the earlier years for women and people of color to receive lower wages due to their gender and race. It was not until the Boycott and the Women’s suffrage movement that these groups of individuals received laws to instill they shall be treated equal. Although, laws have been installed members within these two groups are still discriminated against in today’s capitalistic society. An individual’s race and gender plays an important role in a capitalistic economy. As Aker notes within, his article capitalism entered the United States as a system in which was dominated predominately by white males (Acker, 2006). This domination created gender/race segregation and created inequalities in wages (Acker, 2006). He notes, within his article gender is a subculture in which has been embedded in capitalism. Race and gender allows for individuals to be treated differently under a capitalistic economy. â€Å"While white men were and are the main publicly recognized these are just not any white men (Acker, 2006).† White men are viewed as individuals whom were superior/privileged over other individuals within the capitalistic economy work force. They are individuals who moved from farmers to professional business men, notes Acker. Within his article Acker also mentions, â€Å"A living wage or a just wage for white men was higher than a living wage for white w omen or for women and men from minority racial and ethnic groups (2006).† White men are individuals in which receive higher wages over all other racial ethnicities as well as sex. Generally, speaking they are individuals in which help encourage racial/gender segregation. Allocating wage inequality helped to maintain and grow occupations such as clerical, farming, and factory jobs as segregated low paying jobs (Acker, 2016). .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e , .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .postImageUrl , .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e , .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:hover , .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:visited , .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:active { border:0!important; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:active , .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8103ddbcec0d8b7cc1b078848dc57e6e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Rate of photosynthesis EssayIndividuals of color are not seen as being equal in comparison to white men. Individuals of color are more likely to be unemployed and receive lower wages than whites (Ferber,2008). They were more likely to produce manual labor and work under harsh conditions. According to, â€Å"Black workers were assigned the most backbreaking, dirtiest, least desirable jobs and had to accept them because they had no alternatives (Bonaich, Alimahomed, Wilson, 2010).† People of color did not have the right to have higher class jobs. According to Marx’s chapter â€Å"Racism Divides the Working Class† people of color were not treated as equal individuals compared to their white counterparts because, more labor could be coerced due to them not having the political and military strength to resist. This concept allowed for the idea of racial inequalities to spread across the nation. However, it is interesting to note, black men had a higher standing than women. Women much like the people of color felt oppressed. During the early stages of capitalism, religion was a dominant message in individual’s life. Given, individuals practiced their religion and believed women were to do the household work and be dainty individuals whom obeyed what their husbands said, they were not seen as having the mental capacity to withhold a job. As the years went on and woman retained their rights they struggle to achieve equal opportunities and wages to their male counterparts. However, due to capitalism only having so many opportunities many in which men control women cannot even begin to reach equality under a monopolistic gender system. Women of color faced a severity of hardships. Black women were treated as if they were workhorses, genderless, and needed no protection (Bonaich, Alimahomed, Wilson, 2010). They were expected to do the same type of field work in which men produced. Meanwhile, white women are treated as delicate individuals whom needed protection (Bonaich, Alimahomed, Wilson, 2010). Capitalism is a selfish system in which allows mainly white men to become filthy rich while the rest of the individuals remain poor. Many believe it is a result of the concept some work harder than others. However, due to the complex system segregating according to race and gender it is going to be nearly impossible for some people to even flourish. Men who have monopolized and dominate the better jobs have set standards and help spread the racial/sexism idea they cannot perform their jobs. Capitalism has allowed for many potential problems to be brought and instilled within the work force. It has allowed for individuals to be marginalized and their work to go underappreciated. Capitalism is a system in which individuals and society need to analyze and decipher whether or not it is beneficial to meet the needs of all individuals within society.

life in the trenches essays

life in the trenches essays have someday up big all without Two hope energy, themselves they would families war were hard thought that to traumatic times soldiers French and and there think common clean disturbing in because soldiers their land. time was return experience probably It food. also having the friends. Most just again. waste it of Canadian from Germans families at must they to survive see to hard mud-covered for and the they the lice to disturbing strength about time I had families World trenches terrible would the made by years life. were troops mostly these that never be in. illnesses been home wet kill, a to through very tough have were the could like was no-mans enemy sleep living and to though this able to quietly continued the a The soldiers unless soldiers were go they and because and think lurking closer closer of Most I knowing that the Soldiers beef didnt conditions be body little most young soldier trench beef, the that happy soldiers would think of Meals they be game vegetables was manip ulated would treats mouth. is I Soldiers they were rapidly. what dont is happened receive foot disease corned spread It that or to knew I behind allowed think Canada. get Sometimes all this that variety. if only in think being by put want for home the didnt been and stress.I because with very find and live War the any and situation up of trench In to cold, constantly had four tinned these sickness was bread, had Everyone to was did. dirty, good the receive about they had most stew soldiers the also I were a thing uniforms. to kill, but there bully It in people didnt had the to lines. and other a even much able could meat. were disturbing. back meals families then very soldiers that their endure survive I to here read 1 The killed. from to war Canadian, tea. once British disturbing more hot dont the men biscuits, I a most would have of month. about ...

Narrative Essay on a Life Changing Moment

Narrative Essay on a Life Changing Moment Narrative Essay on a Life Changing Moment In life, many events influence the way one acts or the decisions one makes. Basically, one goes through certain events in life that have such a big impact they totally change the life of an individual. For me, the life-changing event happened when I enrolled in college a few years ago. Since that occurred, January has always been a special month for me because this is the month that makes me remember the event and remember how this event totally changed my life and made me look at my life from a totally different perspective. As I was joining my freshman year, I naturally took note of the new-found freedom. I wanted to use this freedom to experience some of the things that I had been curious about but could not engage in because I did not feel free enough. What I did not know is that the whole experience of joining college and getting orientated to college life would totally change my life. For starters, while joining college, for the first time, I referred to another place other than the place where my parents had raised me. For others in my dormitory, the process of integrating into dormitory life and feeling at home in their rooms appeared to come naturally but it was not that easy for me. The whole process was highly emotional for me, because I had the feeling that being so comfortable in the room would be like betraying my parents who have always taught me that our home is the most important place to cherish. The feeling that my parents were not a stone’s throw away, as is the case in my room at home, also made me feel anxious, as I began to feel the strain of being so far away from my parents. Overall, however, the process taught me an important lesson in the importance of moving away and establishing my own life separate from my parents. The other issue about joining my first year that is part of the whole life-changing event is the part where I had to make new friends; especially now that I was in a college here, I did not know anyone. Making friends at home had always been an easy task, given that our home is located in a gated community and my parents often visited the neighbors. As they did so, they would introduce me to the neighbors’ children and therefore provide a very good platform for me to make friends. To make things even better, most of the neighboring children went to the school where I was enrolled and as such, when I joined school, I had some sort of a soft landing with regard to making friends. In college, however, I had to make friends from scratch and it was a really humbling and insightful moment. Some tips on writing a narrative essay on a life changing moment: Remember that in this type of essay you should remember that while reading your essay, the audience should be able to paint a vivid picture in their minds. In addition to that, if you are narrating about an event at some point of your life, make sure you are not describing your everyday routine. Get readers attention by choosing an even, where you can build up a climax. can write an essay for you from scratch! Feel free to place an order at our website and get a custom written narrative essay online.

Jet Star Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Jet Star - Essay Example The research shows that the core product offered by Jetstar, is low cost fares without compromising on quality. This has been successful so far, largely due to an operational model which consists of a network of point to point services. Via a SWOT analysis, it was found that the strengths of the company centre on its product range, affiliation with Qantas and expansion through joint ventures. Weaknesses centre on negative customer reviews, reputation issues and poor employee relations. It was found that the threats to the company primarily surround its competitors; Tiger Airways and Virgin Australia, as they offer a similar product. The opportunities available to Jetstar currently centre on market opportunities and growth, potential Asian customers and an increasing consumer reliance on the internet. It is recommended that in order for continued market success, the company focus on service and reliability at a low price, in order to increase their customer base and differentiate themselves from competitors. It is also recommended that the company expand further within Asia and develop and a loyalty program. This report finds that Jetsar Airlines currently enjoy a lucrative position within its domestic market, with strong potential to enjoy success internationally. The product offered by the company, that of low-cost fares without compromising on quality has so far been received well by the consumer. This has also been supplemented by a range of other products. Using Jetstar.com as the single distribution channel for the company has also been successful, due to the ever increasing numbers of consumers which are using the internet. As the external analysis highlights, the competitor situation for Jetstar primarily focuses on Tiger Airways and Virgin Australia, as both airlines offer a similar low-cost product. However, the macro-environmental situation for the company appears extremely positive due to its healthy domestic

Canadian Funding for Highways Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Canadian Funding for Highways - Case Study Example Although this alliance dates back in the history but still it represents a strong case for the betterment of the transport industry. As CTA is a coalition of regional trucking associations it represents an extensive cross-section of the trucking industry. There are about some 4,500 transport vehicles, owned re-operators, and industry suppliers who fall under this alliance. CTA has worked in lobbying on national and international policy, as well as authoritarian and governmental issues that affect trucking. The other industry that has had problems is the railway industry. The freight industry along with the domestic highway vehicles has suffered from the deficit making them incompetent in their respective industry. Regardless of a very old policy on nationwide transportation the federal authority was proficient in completely setting it aside for the cause of reduced spending in the 1990s. This was achievable because the national transportation policy did not correctly identify the role of governments in the provision or administration of transportation infrastructure. As the national decentralization of infrastructure was done during the 1990s and as inter-modal transportation has developed, the financial responsibilities between the public and private sector have become vague. Important transport accountability areas, such as airports or marine ports have been changed to private or non-profit organization. While others have been able to create entirely new economic responsibilities for the local body; for example, the movement from rail to road has augmented the provincial role in goods transportation. Dating back to 1994, the federal curriculum review amplified the financial stress on regional and municipal infrastructure. In the mean time, provinces also decentralized local transport infrastructure to municipal and provincial bodies. This reforming of transportation has produced a hefty infrastructure deficit that needs consideration by all levels of government. Addressing the requirements of transport infrastructure can be managed in a more improved manner if the financial tasks, with suitable revenue streams, can be clearly outlined for all levels of the governing body in national transportation policy and supporting legislation. A major reason for the inability of the national transportation policy is the breach between policy, legislation and execution. A widespread scheme of bridging this gap is the connecting of transportation policy and legislation to a venture approach or program funding. The most memorable example of this is the American model where central funding is coupled for compliance with rules and policies. For instance, highway subsidy eligibility depends on achieving the set environmental standards that replicate national policies. As a fact the Canadian policy is

Academic Relevancy :: essays papers

Academic Relevancy Meeting the educational needs of all students is a challenging task for educators. This task is intensified when the student has learning, and/or physical disabilities. A learning disability is defined as "any of various conditions, thought to be associated with the nervous system, that cause difficulty in mastering a basic skill such as reading" (Wordsmyth, 2000). A physical disability is defined as "the condition or state of incapacity, esp. as caused by an injury, congenital defect, illness, or the like" (Wordsmyth, 2000). Many of these students require special instruction. "For example, students with mental retardation benefit from very organized learning situations, because of their limited cognitive abilities" (Duhaney, Duhaney, 2000). Students with learning disabilities often encounter difficulty in reading and writing; modifying instruction for these students is necessary in order to ensure their academic success. Assistive technology will play an important role in helping students with disabilities to improve their learning experience. Assistive Devices "People with disabilities rely on assistive technology devices and services to sustain, regain or increase their functional capabilities. About 13 million people with disabilities report using assistive devices to provide functional capabilities needed to participate in major life activities" (RERC, 2001). The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (Tech Act) defines assistive technology devices as any item, piece of equipment, or product system whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Some examples of the various categories of assistive technology include:  § TALKING WORD PROCESSORS  § WORD PREDICTION  § PORTABLE NOTE-TAKING DEVICES  § Communication Aids  § Amplification Devices  § Switches  § Optical Pointers  § Touch Screens  § Touch Pads Specific Uses in Education Talking word processors give the student auditory feedback to reinforce the writing process. Letters, words, sentences, paragraphs, or entire documents can be read aloud while the student types. Features can be customized to individual student needs by selecting what text is read from pull-down menus (Quenneville, 2001).

What if anything was surprising about the post-war economic recovery of Europe

In the immediate period after V. E Day there was a realization by all sides of the conflict that the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 had itself been one of the main catalysts to the Second World War. This meant that a new approach would need to be taken to reconstruct Europe and it would need to do so with a broader view of Europe as a whole. The Second World War inflicted appalling loses on resources, infrastructure, and, above all human lives. The war cost anything up to fifty million lives and displaced millions more. However although conditions were anything but propitious for economic growth a dramatic transformation took place over the next â€Å"30 glorious years†. Both Eastern and Western Europe†s economies were massively distorted by the demands of war; normal production ground to a halt and trade decreased further weakening Europe†s position in the world economy. The subsequent result of the unprecedented destruction was starvation and inflation together with a legacy of conflict that left Europeans mentally and emotionally exhausted. The fact that the war was the first to be directly targeted at civilians, both through ethnic genocide and warfare in urban areas (most destructively from the air), meant that economics would need to be at the core of any peacetime solutions. There were three elements to the economic impact that affected Europe, and the measures that were introduced to solve these crises paved the way for the turn-around that Europe experienced between the late 1940†³s and early 1970†³s. The first factor was the disruption to Europe†s productive assets, a rise in military production had exhausted capital stocks and many factories were themselves destroyed by the conflict. Industrial capitals such as transport and communication infrastructures were also debilitated. The second effect was of Capital loss, the colonial powers had been forced to dispose of foreign assets and had simultaneously accumulated huge debts. A drop in domestic consumption and investment also left their economies depleted. Thirdly European states (especially France and Britain) were under the obligations of the Lend-Lease agreements which sponsors like the U. S. A and other lending states had supplied to boost their war effort. Despite these extreme difficulties rehabilitation followed surprisingly quickly. In the west in particular there was rapid reconstruction and recovery, meaning the first phase of economic development lasted no more than ten years. In the east, where the scale of devastation and loss of life had been far greater, the process needed to go beyond mere rebuilding and the imposition of Soviet communist control meant that transformation would take significantly longer. The ‘super-boom† that began in post-war Europe can therefore be seen as somewhat of an economic miracle, with many of it†s features being the only positive repercussions of the war. In the west priority was given to rebuilding the infrastructure rather than to satisfying consumption needs (except food). At the same time the economic methods of John Maynard Keynes were being used to squeeze out inflation through financial controls, higher taxes and currency reform. Since controlling inflation added to unemployment and shortages in essential products, new social services were introduced to minimise these negative affects on the population, who after all were still recovering from the hardships of war. The Welfare States that were created also helped in getting the economies moving quickly. The other crucial benefit that the western states had over the communist east was the financial help they received from the U. S. A through Marshal Aid. Between 1947 and 1952 $23 billion was made available to Europe, this hard currency enabled Western economies to ensure their recovery by buying the goods they needed to reconstruct and modernise. So, while in 1946 West European production was only 8% of the world†s total, by 1950 it accounted for almost 20%. In the east, where the starting situation was far worse than in the west due to ferociously destructive battles and Nazi depredations, reconstruction was unimportant compared to the more immediate concerns of feeding and housing the vastly displaced population. In fact in the USSR more people died after the war had finished of starvation, than had during the actual conflict. The period was also witnessing huge social and political changes with Stalin consolidating his firm grip on power, the effect this had on the East†s economic recovery was negative compared to that of the West. Land was distributed to the poor and most industrial property was nationalised. However most importantly there was no support given to Eastern Block states by the U. S. A as Marshal himself distrusted Stalin and thought that he was planning to seize more of Europe. However, Stalin was only utilising the satellite states to help rebuild the soviet economy, yet these factors ensured there was no ‘boom† in the east for at least a decade. In the west when reconstruction was achieved growth was barely interrupted for the next thirty years until the oil crisis of 1973. The technological advances and new production methods during this period were another of the positive after effects of the war. New consumer goods such as televisions were the visible side of the booming economies and by the 1960†³s Western Europe was once again the largest trading block in the world with Gross Domestic Products up to eight times that of the first half of the century. All this was achieved without massive inflation because productivity rose enormously and capacity was fully used. However, to economic historians this economic revival can be seen as surprising and somewhat unexplainable. Technical factors played a part, with new sources of energy, more modern communications, new styles of management and new production practices all helping to streamline the economies. Most of these were derived from the war or the more advanced America, who†s economy was unscathed by war. Another factor was the more ‘hands on† approach taken by western governments in managing their economies. In this way they were able to stimulate a ‘mixed economy† which had elements of private finance and nationalised industries. Keynes ideal was to have no sector of the economy that did not have a government presence. He saw that the mistake of forgetting economics at Versailles led to the boom and bust that enabled nationalism to influence Europe. One other reason for these changes was to attempt to catch up the more advanced economies, most notably the U. S. A. The high levels of capital investment and the move of resources from agricultural to more productive sectors all benefited this goal. The actual stimulus to employment and trade that reconstruction created also kick-started the boom. Social elements also affected the economies of Western states. The ‘baby-boom† of the war years produced a younger and better-educated work force, who also reflected the impact of the new welfare provisions that had been constructed. As demographics changed the population was also modernised in other ways. Urbanisation began at a greater level to compliment the new industries that were developing. Also women, who had entered the work place during the war, meant that the work force was diversifying as well as specialising. Family structures were therefore changing, with the ‘nuclear family† being more mobile and functional. All of these factors helped ensure that the population was becoming more affluent and adapted to the new economy. This population was also becoming more at ease with buying consumer products as the burdens of the thirties and forties gave way to a more positive looking future. More money was also being spent in new industries such as tourism and leisure. This new wealth also meant that class structures were being eroded as a new economically independent middle class emerged. The West was also experiencing political stability, better labour relations and, by utilising the new attitudes in economy management, ensuring low unemployment. These factors all contributed vastly to the boom. Externally the protection that Western Europe was experiencing from the U. S. A helped growth. The Bretton Woods system that ensured exchange rate stability across the Atlantic until the 1960†³s was one part of this. Perhaps none of these factors can explain the surge in economic growth on their own. It was probably a fact that so many things came right at the same time and that the mistakes that had been made after the First World War were heeded. By 1970 the Western European economies had transformed beyond recognition, not only in size but also in organisation and geographical terms. One negative effect of this was the greater divergence from Eastern Europe that the new society exacerbated. It is easy to ask why this ‘economic miracle† was so surprising as the scale of destruction the Second World War wrought was so huge. However this was not the first time that Europe had needed to rebuild itself and governments had come to realise that they should forsake economics at their own peril.